The Institute of Chartered
Accountants of Bangladesh ICAB
IT
Knowledge
Class No- 4
A.H.M. Ariful Islam ACA
Class-IV
Types of
Information: (Page
48) Two different types –
Internal
information:
Information
that has been generated from the operations of the organization at various
functional areas. The internal information gets processed and summarized from
junior to top most level of management.
This
is information which is only available to the business. This information will
be private and accurate. Internal information may take the form the followings:
Sales &
Marketing
Order Processing
Pricing Analysis
Sales Trend forecasting
Manufacturing
and Production
Machine control
Production planning
Facilities location
HR
Training
Compensation
HR Planning
Finance and
Accounting
Accounts Receivable/ Payable
Budgeting
Profit Planning
And other
functional areas wherever applicable
External
information:
The external information is
collected from the external environment of the business organization. External
information is considered to affect the organizational performance from outside
the organization.
This is information which comes
from outside the business. This is gathered via mainly secondary information
methods such as newspapers and magazines, the internet etc.
Examples might include:
- Census figures
- Telephone directories
- Judgments on court cases
- Computer users’ yearbook
- Legislation, for example
- The Data Protection Act
- National opinion polls
- Trade Journals
- Survey maps
- Professional publications
- Financial services agencies
- Industry standard
- The Internet
Passive
and Interactive Information System: (Page 49)
Passive
Information System: Passive
information systems are systems that willanswer queries based on the data that
is held within them, but the data is not altered.
Interactive
Information System: An
interactive system is one, that data can be
entered
for processing which may alter the contents of the database.
Passive or Interactive
1) Electronic Encyclopaedia
2) A school secretary updating the attendance record of a pupil in
the pupil file.
3) A stock control system in a supermarket.
4) A customer wants some work done or makes a payment.
5) A
large chemical plant is controlled automatically from a central control room. One process is to mix two chemicals at a
specific temperature and pressure.
The process is to be computer controlled. Information about the state of chemical processes in the plant is
conveyed to the control room.
6) Student file in a school that can be accessed by members of the
teaching staff to find out where a student
is at a particular time of day, or to look up their
telephone number in order to contact the parents; but it is not possible for an ordinary teacher to alter it.
7) Customers
contact a firm to ask for a quote for a standard piece of work.
Answer:
Passive
1) Electronic
Encyclopaedia where queries can be used to search for data but the user is not allowed to alter the
data.
6) Student file in a school that can be accessed by members of
the teaching staff to find out where a
student is at a particular time of day, or to look up their telephone number in order to contact the parents; but it is
not possible for an ordinary
teacher to alter it.
7) Customers contact a firm to ask for a quote for a standard
piece of work. This quote /
estimate would be obtained from a database which remains unchanged during the enquiry.
Answer:
Interactive
2) A school
secretary updating the attendance record of a pupil in the pupil file.
3) A stock control system in a supermarket is an interactive
information system because it not
only gives information like the price and the description
of the goods for the till receipt (passive), but also updates the number in stock immediately (interactive)
so that when the next item is sold the
number in stock has already been altered.
4) If a customer wants some work done or makes a payment then the customer’s record in a database would
need to be altered to reflect this.
5) A large chemical plant is controlled
automatically from a central control room.
One process is to mix two chemicals at a specific temperature and pressure. The process is to be computer
controlled. Information about the state
of chemical processes in the plant is conveyed to the control room. operators need to alter automatic process
Batch processing
Batch
processing is the execution of a series of
programs ("jobs") on a computer without manual intervention. Jobs are
set up so they can be run to completion without human interaction. All input
parameters are predefined through scripts, command-line arguments, control files,
or job control language.
Batch Processing
and Rapid Response Processing: (Page 51)
Batch
Processing: A
batch processing system is used when the output does not have to beproduced
immediately. Other factors are that the application will tend to use a large
amountof data that processing will tend to be of the same type for each set of
data and that humanintervention is not necessary.
Rapid
Response Processing: Rapid
response processing referred to as real time
Processing.
Real time processing can be thought of as being used in process control
wherethe results of the process are used to inform the next input. The classic
example is the airline booking systems. (Page 51)
Knowledge-based
system
Knowledge-based system
A
knowledge-based system (KBS) is a computer program that reasons
and uses a knowledge base to solve complex problems. The term is broad
and is used to refer to many different kinds of systems.
A
knowledge based system has two types of sub-systems: a knowledge base
and an inference engine. The knowledge base
represents facts about the world,
The
inference engine represents logical assertions and conditions about the world,
usually represented via IF-THEN rules.
Knowledge-Based systems were first developed by Artificial Intelligence researchers. These early knowledge-based systems were
primarily expert systems. In fact the term is often used synonymously with
expert systems. The difference is in the view taken to describe the system.
Expert system refers to the type of task the system is trying to solve, to
replace or aid a human expert in a complex task. Knowledge-based system refers
to the architecture of the system, that it represents knowledge explicitly
rather than as procedural code. While the earliest knowledge-based systems were
almost all expert systems, the same tools and architectures can and have since
been used for a whole host of other types of systems. I.e., virtually all
expert systems are knowledge-based systems but many knowledge-based systems are
not expert systems.
The first knowledge-based systems were rule based
expert systems. One of the most famous was Mycin a program for medical diagnosis. These early expert
systems represented facts about the world as simple assertions in a flat
database and used rules to reason about and as a result add to these
assertions. Representing knowledge explicitly via rules had several advantages:
Advantage of Knowledge –based system:
1.
Acquisition
& Maintenance. Using rules meant that domain experts could often define and
maintain the rules themselves rather than via a programmer.
2.
Explanation.
Representing knowledge explicitly allowed systems to reason about how they came
to a conclusion and use this information to explain results to users. For
example, to follow the chain of inferences that led to a diagnosis and use
these facts to explain the diagnosis.
3.
Reasoning. Decoupling the knowledge from the
processing of that knowledge enabled general purpose inference engines to be
developed. These systems could develop conclusions that followed from a data
set that the initial developers may not have even been aware of.
4.
The
knowledge-based became more structured, representing information using similar techniques
to object-oriented programming such as hierarchies of classes and subclasses,
relations between classes, and behavior of objects.
As knowledge-based systems became more complex the
techniques used to represent the knowledge base became more sophisticated
As the knowledge base became more structured reasoning
could occur both by independent rules and by interactions within the knowledge
base itself. For example, procedures stored as demons on objects could fire and
could replicate the chaining behavior of rules.
Another advancement was the development of special
purpose automated reasoning systems called classifiers. Rather than statically
declare the sub assumption relations in a knowledge-base a classifier allows
the developer to simply declare facts about the world and let the classifier
deduce the relations. In this way a classifier also can play the role of an
inference engine.
Knowledge base (KB)
A knowledge base (KB) is a technology
used to store complex structured and unstructured information used by a computer system. The initial use of the
term was in connection with expert
systems which were the first knowledge-based systems.
The term "knowledge-base" was to distinguish
from the more common widely used term database. At the time (the 1970s)
virtually all large Management
Information Systems stored their data
in some type of hierarchical or relational database. At this point in the history of Information Technology the distinction between a database and a
knowledge-base was clear and unambiguous. A database had the following
properties:
- Flat data. Data was usually represented in a tabular format with strings or number in each field.
- Multiple users. A conventional database must support more than one user or system logged into the same data at the same time.
- Transactions. An essential requirement for a database was to maintain integrity and consistency among data that is accessed by concurrent users. These are the so-called ACID properties: Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.
- Large, long-lived data. A corporate database needed to support not just thousands but hundreds of thousands or beyond rows of data. Such a database usually needs to persist past the specific uses of any individual program, it needs to store data for years and decades rather than for the life of a program.
Types
of knowledge-based systems: (Page 53) three types –
Diagnostic: The user
interface gives a series of questions, each of which has a limited number of
possible answers, each one of which leads to another question. Gradually the amount
of data in the knowledge base is reduced until there is only a small amount of relevant
data which must provide the answer to the query.
Advice Giving: An advice giving
system is one that follows some process being done and then offers advice on
how to proceed if something needs to be done or goes wrong.
Decision Making: A decision
making knowledge based system is a system which understands what is happening
in a system and has been given enough rules to be able tomake and carry out
decisions without further intervention.
Following
are the different types of knowledge-based system -
a) Expert System
b) Neural Networks (NNs)
c) Case-based reasoning (CBR)
d) Genetic algorithms
e) Intelligent Agents
f) Data mining.
Financial
Reporting System and Role of IT (page no.-55)
Pivot table
In data
processing, a pivot table is a data summarization tool found in data
visualization programs such as spreadsheets or business intelligence software.
Graphics
Graphics
(from Greek γραφικός graphikos, 'something written' e.g. autograph) are visual
images or designs on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or
stone to inform, illustrate, or entertain.
International
Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)
Structure of IFRS (page no. - 59)
Framework (page no.-60)
Objective of Financial Statements (page no.-61)
A financial
statement should reflect true and fair view of the business affairs of the
organization.
Qualitative
Characteristics of Financial Statements (page no.-61)
Understandability
Reliability
Comparability
Relevance
True and Fair View
Elements of Financial Statements
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